TEHACHAPI REGION - Revision history

Shannon at 22:46, 27 July 2010

2010-07-27T22:46:30Z

Shannon: /* TEHACHAPI REGION – KAWAIISU FAMILY GROUPS */

2010-07-27T20:12:05Z

‎TEHACHAPI REGION – KAWAIISU FAMILY GROUPS

Shannon at 15:26, 27 July 2010

2010-07-27T15:26:56Z

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Shannon: /* TEHACHAPI REGION – KAWAIISU FAMILY GROUPS */

2010-07-27T15:20:53Z

‎TEHACHAPI REGION – KAWAIISU FAMILY GROUPS

Shannon: /* Early Expedition References */

2010-07-27T15:20:26Z

‎Early Expedition References

Shannon: /* Mission Register References */

2010-07-27T15:20:03Z

‎Mission Register References

Shannon: /* 1840-1900 Historic References */

2010-07-27T15:19:45Z

‎1840-1900 Historic References

Shannon: /* Non-Ethnographic Twentieth-Century References */

2010-07-27T15:19:17Z

‎Non-Ethnographic Twentieth-Century References

Shannon: /* Classic Ethnographic References */

2010-07-27T15:18:49Z

‎Classic Ethnographic References

Shannon: /* Western Tehachapi Valley – Native Places */

2010-07-27T15:18:18Z

‎Western Tehachapi Valley – Native Places

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:46, 27 July 2010
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	''Barras 1984.'' The Cache Creek and Sand Canyon areas appear to have been a focus of local native settlement before and during the nineteenth century. Barras (1984:9) collected a traditional native story about a Spanish/ Mexican era raid against the native population of Sand Canyon, where babies had to be kept from crying out. Andy Greene related family oral traditions concerning a raid by US Army forces in the area during the Civil War era of the nineteenth century. This may have occurred during the Civil War era, when unrest in the Eastern Sierra area included the involvement of Kawaiisu in hostilities against White miners in the Kern River region. One version provided by Andy Greene suggested that this occurred after the Keysville Indian massacre in the spring of 1863. The oral traditions included accounts of the death of a White scout with a "peg-leg" who was hated by the local Kawaiisu. It has not yet been possible to find corroboration in Army records of such a raid in the area, but research is ongoing (Barras 1984:81). A native cemetery dating from historic times is located east of Sand Canyon road in the canyon. Many Kawaiisu who lived inn the region during the course of the twentieth century are buried there.		''Barras 1984.'' The Cache Creek and Sand Canyon areas appear to have been a focus of local native settlement before and during the nineteenth century. Barras (1984:9) collected a traditional native story about a Spanish/ Mexican era raid against the native population of Sand Canyon, where babies had to be kept from crying out. Andy Greene related family oral traditions concerning a raid by US Army forces in the area during the Civil War era of the nineteenth century. This may have occurred during the Civil War era, when unrest in the Eastern Sierra area included the involvement of Kawaiisu in hostilities against White miners in the Kern River region. One version provided by Andy Greene suggested that this occurred after the Keysville Indian massacre in the spring of 1863. The oral traditions included accounts of the death of a White scout with a "peg-leg" who was hated by the local Kawaiisu. It has not yet been possible to find corroboration in Army records of such a raid in the area, but research is ongoing (Barras 1984:81). A native cemetery dating from historic times is located east of Sand Canyon road in the canyon. Many Kawaiisu who lived inn the region during the course of the twentieth century are buried there.

−	[[Category:~~Region~~]]	+
		+	[[category:region]][[Category:Volume_13\|R]]

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 ''By David Earle''
-The Tehachapi region of east-central Kern County contains the town of Tehachapi, tucked away in a valley of that name that separates the south Sierra Nevada Range from the Tehachapi Range. The Mojave Desert town of Mojave lies just beyond the region to the east. The region was the year-round territory of speakers of Kawaiisu, a Numic language very closely related to Chemehuevi/Southern Paiute. Families from this area harvested acorns in and around Tehachapi Valley and pinyon nuts in surrounding mountains in the autumn. Kawaiisu groups traveled to the east into the Mojave Desert in the spring to hunt antelopes in areas like the southern Panamint Valley, where some permanent Kawaiisu settlement also existed. Mesquite, salt, and other resources were also obtained from the desert.
+[[Image:Topo_Tehachapi.png|200px|thumb|right|Tehachapi Topographic Map]][[Image:Region_Tehachapi.png|200px|thumb|right|Tehachapi Region Map]][[Image:Photo_Tehachapi.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Tehachapi Region along Route 202]]The Tehachapi region of east-central Kern County contains the town of Tehachapi, tucked away in a valley of that name that separates the south Sierra Nevada Range from the Tehachapi Range. The Mojave Desert town of Mojave lies just beyond the region to the east. The region was the year-round territory of speakers of Kawaiisu, a Numic language very closely related to Chemehuevi/Southern Paiute. Families from this area harvested acorns in and around Tehachapi Valley and pinyon nuts in surrounding mountains in the autumn. Kawaiisu groups traveled to the east into the Mojave Desert in the spring to hunt antelopes in areas like the southern Panamint Valley, where some permanent Kawaiisu settlement also existed. Mesquite, salt, and other resources were also obtained from the desert.
 The Kawaiisu appear to have incorporated elements of the lifeways of immediately neighboring Yokuts, Chumash, and Takic groups, and could be said to have possessed an amalgam of Great Basin and California cultural features. The Kawaiisu do not appear to have been organized in corporate territorial or marriage-regulating lineages, clans or moieties, unlike some interior Takic groups or the neighboring Southern Valley Yokuts. The exact nature of their territorial organization is unclear. No evidence has so far come to light to suggest that the Kawaiisu may have possessed the patrilineally inherited song groups that regulated claims to and access to hunting territories among the culturally related Chemehuevi of the Mojave Desert (Earle 2004:45-48).

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 =TEHACHAPI REGION – KAWAIISU FAMILY GROUPS=
-By David Earle
+''By David Earle''
 The Tehachapi region of east-central Kern County contains the town of Tehachapi, tucked away in a valley of that name that separates the south Sierra Nevada Range from the Tehachapi Range. The Mojave Desert town of Mojave lies just beyond the region to the east. The region was the year-round territory of speakers of Kawaiisu, a Numic language very closely related to Chemehuevi/Southern Paiute. Families from this area harvested acorns in and around Tehachapi Valley and pinyon nuts in surrounding mountains in the autumn. Kawaiisu groups traveled to the east into the Mojave Desert in the spring to hunt antelopes in areas like the southern Panamint Valley, where some permanent Kawaiisu settlement also existed. Mesquite, salt, and other resources were also obtained from the desert.

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 ==Early Expedition References==
-''Garcés 1776.'' In the late spring of 1776, Franciscan missionary Fr. Francisco Garcés visited Kawaiisu territory, during an unsuccessful attempt to find an interior route from Sonora to Monterey (Coues 1900:I:304-305). After having explored northward in the San Joaquin Valley and in the western Kern Valley, Garcés returned southward in early May through Yawelmani (Yowlumni) Yokuts territory at Bakersfield. He then traveled back to the ranchería of San Pascual located on Tejon Creek. From there he climbed northward out of Tejon Canyon to Cummings Valley, west of the Tehachapi Valley. A principal native trail ran northeast from Tejón Canyon up the ridge face to the north of the canyon, and ascended into the southern end of Cummings Valley at a point to the west of Cummings Mountain.
+'''''Garcés 1776:''''' In the late spring of 1776, Franciscan missionary Fr. Francisco Garcés visited Kawaiisu territory, during an unsuccessful attempt to find an interior route from Sonora to Monterey (Coues 1900:I:304-305). After having explored northward in the San Joaquin Valley and in the western Kern Valley, Garcés returned southward in early May through Yawelmani (Yowlumni) Yokuts territory at Bakersfield. He then traveled back to the ranchería of San Pascual located on Tejon Creek. From there he climbed northward out of Tejon Canyon to Cummings Valley, west of the Tehachapi Valley. A principal native trail ran northeast from Tejón Canyon up the ridge face to the north of the canyon, and ascended into the southern end of Cummings Valley at a point to the west of Cummings Mountain.
 This trail is shown on an 1855 plat survey map, crossing modern Banducci Road about 1.25 miles west of the Cummings Ranch (General Land Office 1854-1855). This route, or one in the general vicinity, was followed by Fr. Garcés as he climbed into Cummings Valley on May 11, 1776, where he entered Kawaiisu territory and camped at a lake he called the Laguna de San Venancio (Coues 1900, VolumeI:304-305). This region was ascribed to the Kawaiisu by a consultant of John Harrington in 1916 (Harrington 1986:III:Reel 98: 664-670)
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 The Tehachapi group sat astride an important travel and exchange corridor linking the San Joaquin Valley and coastal southern California with the Colorado River and the southwest. Mohaves in particular were involved in a circuit of long-distance exchange wherein they brought goods from the southwest to exchange for shell beads in the southern San Joaquin Valley. These beads were brought to the valley from coastal southern California (Earle 2005). Aside from being hosts to the Mohaves, the Kawaiisu were also involved themselves in exchanging salt and other products to the west.
-''Palomares 1808.'' After Garcés<nowiki>’</nowiki> account from 1776, the next description of Spanish travel through the area was that of the José Palomares expedition of 1808. Even by that relatively early date, flight from the southern California Franciscan missions had begun to be a feature of mission life. At that time a native chief who was called Quipagues by the Spanish authorities was offering refuge to runaways from Missions San Fernando and San Gabriel. He apparently resided with his son Hopono in the Tehachapi Mountains region, and appears to have been a Kawaiisu chief. He was later recalled by consultants of John Harrington as having had much-feared supernatural powers (Blackburn 1975:273-275). Palomares<nowiki>’</nowiki> expedition, in search of mission runaways, searched rancherías in the southern Antelope Valley and then crossed the Tehachapis by way of the old Tejón Pass (San Pascual) before fighting with Quipagues inconclusively in the San Joaquin Valley foothills.
+'''''Palomares 1808:''''' After Garcés<nowiki>’</nowiki> account from 1776, the next description of Spanish travel through the area was that of the José Palomares expedition of 1808. Even by that relatively early date, flight from the southern California Franciscan missions had begun to be a feature of mission life. At that time a native chief who was called Quipagues by the Spanish authorities was offering refuge to runaways from Missions San Fernando and San Gabriel. He apparently resided with his son Hopono in the Tehachapi Mountains region, and appears to have been a Kawaiisu chief. He was later recalled by consultants of John Harrington as having had much-feared supernatural powers (Blackburn 1975:273-275). Palomares<nowiki>’</nowiki> expedition, in search of mission runaways, searched rancherías in the southern Antelope Valley and then crossed the Tehachapis by way of the old Tejón Pass (San Pascual) before fighting with Quipagues inconclusively in the San Joaquin Valley foothills.
 Another Spanish expedition, that of Fr. Luís Antonio Martinez, that visited the Southern Valley Yokuts in 1816, reported that a grandson of Quipagues was killed fighting against the Yokuts in 1816 (Cook 1960:271-272). In 1819, as the flight of neophytes became even more of a problem for the Franciscan missionaries at Missions San Fernando and San Gabriel, Quipagues himself was still sheltering runaways (Nuez 1819: Fol. 1). A proposal was also floated by Spanish authorities at around this time to build a fort in the Tehachapis to break up Mohave exchange with the southern San Joaquin Valley and limit the flight of mission runaways to the region. This plan was not, however, put into effect.

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 ==Mission Register References==
-''Mission San Fernando, 1820-1838.'' The Kawaiisu were generically referred to by their Kitanemuk neighbors to the south as the Akutushyam. This designation and the variant Agutushyam was also used by other groups such as the Desert Serrano/ Vanyumé (Anderton 1988:267). The apparent ranchería designations Akutus and Akutuspea appear in sacramental registers at Mission San Fernando as <nowiki>’</nowiki>Acutus<nowiki>’</nowiki> and <nowiki>’</nowiki>Acutuspe<nowiki>’</nowiki>. Acutuspe (or Akutuspea) is a name usage featuring the Kitanemuk Serrano locative ending -pea.
+'''''Mission San Fernando, 1820-1838:''''' The Kawaiisu were generically referred to by their Kitanemuk neighbors to the south as the Akutushyam. This designation and the variant Agutushyam was also used by other groups such as the Desert Serrano/ Vanyumé (Anderton 1988:267). The apparent ranchería designations Akutus and Akutuspea appear in sacramental registers at Mission San Fernando as <nowiki>’</nowiki>Acutus<nowiki>’</nowiki> and <nowiki>’</nowiki>Acutuspe<nowiki>’</nowiki>. Acutuspe (or Akutuspea) is a name usage featuring the Kitanemuk Serrano locative ending -pea.
 Information from mission registers at Mission San Fernando indicate that the rancheria of Acutuspea (Acutusinga) was the place of origin of a number of individuals baptized at the mission. This place may have had some association with Quipagues or his immediate relatives. A daughter of Quipagues was reported in a Mission San Fernando sacramental record as having originated at "Tusinga", either born or married there. As mentioned above, the people of Acutuspea, what the Kitanemuk called the Acutusjam (Acutusyam), were identified by other native groups as the inclusive term for the Kawaiisu ethnic group as a whole. No other community mentioned in the Mission San Fernando registers can be even tentatively identified with the Kawaiisu. The name of the Acutuspea rancheria was variously listed as Acutuspe, Tupsipe, Acutus, Cutusinga, Tusinga, Tuucsinga, Tusigna, and Tusina. The locative endings used here- -nga or -gna and -pea, are Gabrielino/ Fernandeño and Kitanemuk Serrano, respectively.

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 ==1840-1900 Historic References==
-''Frémont 1844.'' The expedition of exploration led by John C. Frémont that visited the California interior in 1844 passed through the Tehachapi region in April of that year. Due to the size and military nature of the expedition, native peoples in southern California tended to avoid contact with it. However, Frémont mentioned that when his party camped on Tehachapi Creek at Caliente, he was visited by an unnamed horse-mounted mission Indian from Mission San Fernando, described as on leave from the mission with permission to visit relatives in the area. He had seen Frémont<nowiki>’</nowiki>s party climbing the creek and had ridden downstream to meet them. The next day Fremont<nowiki>’</nowiki>s party and the <nowiki>’</nowiki>Indian<nowiki>’</nowiki> climbed the creek to the Tehachapi Valley, where four of the Indian<nowiki>’</nowiki>s <nowiki>’</nowiki>compañeros<nowiki>’</nowiki> briefly joined him. Two of these Indians accompanied the group to overnight at their next campsite on the Mojave Desert side of the Tehachapi Pass. The next day, Frémont purchased a saddle and spurs from them, and traded scarlet cloth for a horse, before they turned back to the Tehachapi region. The native man then guided the party from the Tehachapi region southeastward, presumably via Willow Springs, to Elizabeth Lake, and pointed out various desert water sources to them, as well as the trail that ran farther east from Elizabeth Lake in the direction of the Mojave River. He also pointed out the spot along the route of travel where a Christian Indian had been killed by Mexican soldiers. He then returned on a trail to San Fernando (Jackson and Spence 1970:666-672).
+'''''Frémont 1844:''''' The expedition of exploration led by John C. Frémont that visited the California interior in 1844 passed through the Tehachapi region in April of that year. Due to the size and military nature of the expedition, native peoples in southern California tended to avoid contact with it. However, Frémont mentioned that when his party camped on Tehachapi Creek at Caliente, he was visited by an unnamed horse-mounted mission Indian from Mission San Fernando, described as on leave from the mission with permission to visit relatives in the area. He had seen Frémont<nowiki>’</nowiki>s party climbing the creek and had ridden downstream to meet them. The next day Fremont<nowiki>’</nowiki>s party and the <nowiki>’</nowiki>Indian<nowiki>’</nowiki> climbed the creek to the Tehachapi Valley, where four of the Indian<nowiki>’</nowiki>s <nowiki>’</nowiki>compañeros<nowiki>’</nowiki> briefly joined him. Two of these Indians accompanied the group to overnight at their next campsite on the Mojave Desert side of the Tehachapi Pass. The next day, Frémont purchased a saddle and spurs from them, and traded scarlet cloth for a horse, before they turned back to the Tehachapi region. The native man then guided the party from the Tehachapi region southeastward, presumably via Willow Springs, to Elizabeth Lake, and pointed out various desert water sources to them, as well as the trail that ran farther east from Elizabeth Lake in the direction of the Mojave River. He also pointed out the spot along the route of travel where a Christian Indian had been killed by Mexican soldiers. He then returned on a trail to San Fernando (Jackson and Spence 1970:666-672).
-''Williamson 1853.'' In 1853, Lieut. R. S. Williamson led a railroad survey party along the southern San Joaquin Valley in search of pass routes across the southern Sierra Nevada. The party then traveled up the south fork of the Kern River to Walker Pass and backtracked to Kelso Canyon on the South Fork of the Kern River (Williamson 1856). The survey party then traveled on an Indian trail across the mountains southwestward from the direction of Kelso Canyon and Kelso Valley to arrive at the Tehachapi Valley.
+'''''Williamson 1853:''''' In 1853, Lieut. R. S. Williamson led a railroad survey party along the southern San Joaquin Valley in search of pass routes across the southern Sierra Nevada. The party then traveled up the south fork of the Kern River to Walker Pass and backtracked to Kelso Canyon on the South Fork of the Kern River (Williamson 1856). The survey party then traveled on an Indian trail across the mountains southwestward from the direction of Kelso Canyon and Kelso Valley to arrive at the Tehachapi Valley.
 Williamson<nowiki>’</nowiki>s account indicates that the expedition traveled southwest from Kelso Valley and to the west of Cache Peak before entering the Tehachapi Valley, apparently at the mouth of Whiterock Creek just west of Monolith, rather than at Cache Creek farther east. A native ranchería was encountered, apparently located between Monolith and Tehachapi, and then a second one was noted as situated near the expedition<nowiki>’</nowiki>s camp established two to three miles west of the first ranchería, on Tehachapi Creek probably near Old Town, the former pre-1870s site of Tehachapi. Williamson described descending to the Tehechapi Valley as follows:
@@ Line 53: / Line 53: @@
 When William Brewer passed through the original settlement of Tehachapi (Old Town) in 1863, he did not mention observing any native inhabitants of the area (Brewer 1966:389-390). Comments by Tehachapi pioneers about possible native unrest suggests the presence of native people in the general area in the late 1850s and 1860s. Native people appear to have been living in the Sand Canyon area, northeast of Monolith, at this time and later. Among Kawaiisu-speakers settled in the eastern foothills of the San Gabriel Mountain range or resident in Victorville in around 1905 were individuals that reported having been born in "Tehachapi" during this era (Kroeber 1925:602).
-''US Decennial Census – 1860, 1880.'' The 1860 US Decennial Census is the first which provides information on the geographical location of native individuals and families in the Tehachapi region. No native families are listed for the Tehachapi Valley itself, although native people (probably Yokuts and Kitanemuk) are living farther south in the Tejon Canyon area. In the 1880 US Decennial Census, once again, no families are listed for the Tehachapi Valley, but two families of Indians are listed for Cummings Valley and Brite<nowiki>’</nowiki>s Valley. In Cummings Valley, Alaya Quareta, age 35, vaquero, and his native wife Antonia, 30 were listed. In Brite<nowiki>’</nowiki>s Valley, Niaris, 40, a laborer, his wife, Maria, 27, and sons Sotorio, age eight, Apahata <nowiki>[</nowiki>?<nowiki>]</nowiki>, six, Pquatio <nowiki>[</nowiki>?<nowiki>]</nowiki>, four, and Tom, four months, were enumerated (Bureau of the Census 1880: Caliente Twp.: Cummings Valley Pct.: p. 6).
+'''''US Decennial Census – 1860, 1880:''''' The 1860 US Decennial Census is the first which provides information on the geographical location of native individuals and families in the Tehachapi region. No native families are listed for the Tehachapi Valley itself, although native people (probably Yokuts and Kitanemuk) are living farther south in the Tejon Canyon area. In the 1880 US Decennial Census, once again, no families are listed for the Tehachapi Valley, but two families of Indians are listed for Cummings Valley and Brite<nowiki>’</nowiki>s Valley. In Cummings Valley, Alaya Quareta, age 35, vaquero, and his native wife Antonia, 30 were listed. In Brite<nowiki>’</nowiki>s Valley, Niaris, 40, a laborer, his wife, Maria, 27, and sons Sotorio, age eight, Apahata <nowiki>[</nowiki>?<nowiki>]</nowiki>, six, Pquatio <nowiki>[</nowiki>?<nowiki>]</nowiki>, four, and Tom, four months, were enumerated (Bureau of the Census 1880: Caliente Twp.: Cummings Valley Pct.: p. 6).
 ==Non-Ethnographic Twentieth-Century References==

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 ==Non-Ethnographic Twentieth-Century References==
-''US Decennial Census 1900.'' John Marcus was a long-time resident of the Tehachapi Valley, although he was born in the Panamint Mountains region and had reportedly lived in Kelso Valley as a child. He and his wife Louisa and two sons were listed in the 1900 US Decennial Census. Four other households, those of Sal Guadalupe, Joe George, Louis Jesuit <nowiki>[</nowiki>?<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and Juan Manuel were listed as resident in the Tehachapi area in 1900 (Bureau of the Census 1900: Twp. 14, East Greenwich Pct., Sheet 8A). Guadalupe worked as a wood chopper, while the others worked as farm laborers.
+'''''US Decennial Census 1900:''''' John Marcus was a long-time resident of the Tehachapi Valley, although he was born in the Panamint Mountains region and had reportedly lived in Kelso Valley as a child. He and his wife Louisa and two sons were listed in the 1900 US Decennial Census. Four other households, those of Sal Guadalupe, Joe George, Louis Jesuit <nowiki>[</nowiki>?<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and Juan Manuel were listed as resident in the Tehachapi area in 1900 (Bureau of the Census 1900: Twp. 14, East Greenwich Pct., Sheet 8A). Guadalupe worked as a wood chopper, while the others worked as farm laborers.
-''Kelsey 1905-1906.'' C. E. Kelsey was appointed a Special Indian Agent with the responsibility for carrying out an enumeration of non-reservation Indians in northern and central California in 1905-1906. At that time, Kelsey recorded 15 native people comprising two families as resident in the Tehachapi region (Kelsey 1971:43). "Sistemo" <nowiki>[</nowiki>Setimo<nowiki>]</nowiki> Rafael, his wife and four children were listed. Rafael, actually Setimo Girado, was later enumerated in 1910 as resident on "Paris Road", in the Paris-Loraine area, and thus had apparently moved his residence. Kelsey<nowiki>’</nowiki>s 1905-1906 listing of "Marcus and wife" should correspond to John Marcus, approximately 30-33 years old at the time, and his wife Luisa <nowiki>[</nowiki>Louisa<nowiki>]</nowiki>, approximately the same age, along with four children. A woman listed as "mother" was also enumerated, perhaps Luisa<nowiki>’</nowiki>s parent.
+'''''Kelsey 1905-1906:''''' C. E. Kelsey was appointed a Special Indian Agent with the responsibility for carrying out an enumeration of non-reservation Indians in northern and central California in 1905-1906. At that time, Kelsey recorded 15 native people comprising two families as resident in the Tehachapi region (Kelsey 1971:43). "Sistemo" <nowiki>[</nowiki>Setimo<nowiki>]</nowiki> Rafael, his wife and four children were listed. Rafael, actually Setimo Girado, was later enumerated in 1910 as resident on "Paris Road", in the Paris-Loraine area, and thus had apparently moved his residence. Kelsey<nowiki>’</nowiki>s 1905-1906 listing of "Marcus and wife" should correspond to John Marcus, approximately 30-33 years old at the time, and his wife Luisa <nowiki>[</nowiki>Louisa<nowiki>]</nowiki>, approximately the same age, along with four children. A woman listed as "mother" was also enumerated, perhaps Luisa<nowiki>’</nowiki>s parent.
-''US Decennial Census 1920, 1930.'' In 1920, John Marcus was working as a farm laborer in Cummings Valley, while his family was resident at the Monolith townsite, adjacent to the Monolith Cement Plant. A native settlement existed at Monolith at that time, and included five native households, those of George Green, Sam Willie, Louisa Marcus, Rosie and Harvey Hicks (the latter a Euro-American farmer), and Jim Manuel. Green, Willie, and Manuel worked as farm laborers rather than at the cement plant (Bureau of the Census 1920: 2nd Twp., E.D. 79, Sheet 7A). The Niadras <nowiki>[</nowiki>Niaris<nowiki>]</nowiki> family was still resident in the Cummings Valley, while the head of the family worked as a farm hand in Old Town Tehachapi, along with another native, James Manuel (Bureau of the Census 1920: 2nd Twp., E.D. 80, Sheet 1B, 2A). In 1930, the Marcus and Willie households may still have been located in the same area as in 1920 (Bureau of the Census 1930: 8th Twp., Greenwich Pct., E.D. 15-47, Sheet 2A). As discussed below, John and Louisa Marcus later moved from Monolith to the Cache Creek-Sand Canyon region, where Louisa had apparently lived previously.
+'''''US Decennial Census 1920, 1930:''''' In 1920, John Marcus was working as a farm laborer in Cummings Valley, while his family was resident at the Monolith townsite, adjacent to the Monolith Cement Plant. A native settlement existed at Monolith at that time, and included five native households, those of George Green, Sam Willie, Louisa Marcus, Rosie and Harvey Hicks (the latter a Euro-American farmer), and Jim Manuel. Green, Willie, and Manuel worked as farm laborers rather than at the cement plant (Bureau of the Census 1920: 2nd Twp., E.D. 79, Sheet 7A). The Niadras <nowiki>[</nowiki>Niaris<nowiki>]</nowiki> family was still resident in the Cummings Valley, while the head of the family worked as a farm hand in Old Town Tehachapi, along with another native, James Manuel (Bureau of the Census 1920: 2nd Twp., E.D. 80, Sheet 1B, 2A). In 1930, the Marcus and Willie households may still have been located in the same area as in 1920 (Bureau of the Census 1930: 8th Twp., Greenwich Pct., E.D. 15-47, Sheet 2A). As discussed below, John and Louisa Marcus later moved from Monolith to the Cache Creek-Sand Canyon region, where Louisa had apparently lived previously.
 ==Classic Ethnographic References==

@@ Line 63: / Line 63: @@
 ==Classic Ethnographic References==
-''Merriam 1905.'' Merriam gathered information about the Tehachapi region people while at the Tejon Rancheria on Tejon Creek in November 1905 (Merriam 1967).
+'''''Merriam 1905:''''' Merriam gathered information about the Tehachapi region people while at the Tejon Rancheria on Tejon Creek in November 1905 (Merriam 1967).
 <blockquote>Tehachapi Valley Rancheria. Tribe, Ow´-wah-tum Nuwuwah (Shoshonean). Near "Old Town," about two and a half to three miles west of present town of Tehachapi, and on floor of valley on the creek. In their own language:<br>
@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 Merriam in this case had heard the Hammenat (Kitanemuk) and Too-lol<nowiki>’</nowiki>min (Tulamni Yokuts?) at the Tejón Rancheria discuss the Ah-koo-toot<nowiki>’</nowiki>-sa-am (Akutushyam), who were not part of <nowiki>’</nowiki>their tribe<nowiki>’</nowiki> (they in fact did not themselves belong to the same ethnic-linguistic group). The term Akutushyam, based on the name of the ethnohistoric village of Akustushpea (Tehachapi region?), referred exclusively to the Kawaiisu and not to the Tejon groups.
-''Kroeber 1905, 1925.'' Kroeber (1925: Plate 47) mapped the Tehachapi region as territory of Kawaiisu speakers in his Handbook. He did not comment upon the region specifically, but did state: "Tehachapi has its designation from a local name, which has been taken over by the Yokuts as Tahichpi-u" (Kroeber 1925:602). He also reported that the Serrano and Kitanemuk call the Kawaiisu "Agutushyam, Agudutsyam, or Akutusyam."
+'''''Kroeber 1905, 1925:''''' Kroeber (1925: Plate 47) mapped the Tehachapi region as territory of Kawaiisu speakers in his Handbook. He did not comment upon the region specifically, but did state: "Tehachapi has its designation from a local name, which has been taken over by the Yokuts as Tahichpi-u" (Kroeber 1925:602). He also reported that the Serrano and Kitanemuk call the Kawaiisu "Agutushyam, Agudutsyam, or Akutusyam."
-''Latta 1949, 1977.'' In 1949 Latta identified the Caliente, Havilah, and Tehachapi regions as the homelands of the Kawaiisu.
+'''''Latta 1949, 1977:''''' In 1949 Latta identified the Caliente, Havilah, and Tehachapi regions as the homelands of the Kawaiisu.
 <blockquote>Occupying Tehachapi Valley and the country north through Walker<nowiki>’</nowiki>s Basin were the Kawaiisu… Another Kawiisu village was Tahichpiu, after which modern Tehachapi was named (Latta 1949:40).</blockquote>

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 ==Western Tehachapi Valley – Native Places==
-''Harrington 1916.'' John P. Harrington carried out linguistic and ethnographic fieldwork at the Tejon rancheria on Tejon Creek in 1916. In 1947 he worked with related Chemehuevi and Kawaiisu consultants at Tehachapi, Victorville, and Las Vegas. A native consultant at the Tejón Ranchería named Pedro Cuhueye, who was interviewed by Harrington in 1916, stated that Cummings Valley, Brite Valley, and Tehachapi Valley were occupied by the Kawaiisu (Harrington 1986:III:Reel 98:664-670). Kitanemuk terms were provided that identified important localities in Cummings Valley. These included Hakapea <nowiki>[</nowiki>Ahakapea<nowiki>]</nowiki> at George Cummings<nowiki>’</nowiki> house. An aguaje or water source named Hupitspea was located to the south of the ranch towards Cummings Mountain. A lake at the Chanac Ranch was called Memeyek in Kitanemuk. This is a body of water that has since dried up. A site at a spring on the west side of Brite Valley was called Chilampea or Chiram. This name appears to be Kitanemuk rather than Kawaiisu in origin. A location at the Banducci ranch was called <nowiki>’</nowiki>a<nowiki>’</nowiki>aheaveahuna<s>i</s>t—the bear bathing place.
+'''''Harrington 1916:''''' John P. Harrington carried out linguistic and ethnographic fieldwork at the Tejon rancheria on Tejon Creek in 1916. In 1947 he worked with related Chemehuevi and Kawaiisu consultants at Tehachapi, Victorville, and Las Vegas. A native consultant at the Tejón Ranchería named Pedro Cuhueye, who was interviewed by Harrington in 1916, stated that Cummings Valley, Brite Valley, and Tehachapi Valley were occupied by the Kawaiisu (Harrington 1986:III:Reel 98:664-670). Kitanemuk terms were provided that identified important localities in Cummings Valley. These included Hakapea <nowiki>[</nowiki>Ahakapea<nowiki>]</nowiki> at George Cummings<nowiki>’</nowiki> house. An aguaje or water source named Hupitspea was located to the south of the ranch towards Cummings Mountain. A lake at the Chanac Ranch was called Memeyek in Kitanemuk. This is a body of water that has since dried up. A site at a spring on the west side of Brite Valley was called Chilampea or Chiram. This name appears to be Kitanemuk rather than Kawaiisu in origin. A location at the Banducci ranch was called <nowiki>’</nowiki>a<nowiki>’</nowiki>aheaveahuna<s>i</s>t—the bear bathing place.
 In addition, Harrington was told that the Kitanemuk name for the modern site of Tehachapi was tarahu<nowiki>’</nowiki>pea, the name making reference to a baby<nowiki>’</nowiki>s cradle. This name appears to correspond to a Kawaiisu placename recorded by Zigmond, discussed below. Harrington was also given terms for the Old Town site—tevijek—and for an aguaje with a large oak just north and below Old Town—tahit∫<sup>r</sup>pea (Harrington:III:Reel 98: Fr. 670). This name appears to correspond to the Kawaiisu placename for the same location, Tehechita, recorded by Zigmond, as discussed below.
-''Zigmond 1977, 1980, 1981, 1986, Zigmond et al. 1991.'' Maurice Zigmond carried out fieldwork among the Kawaiisu in 1936-1940 and 1970-1974. Stephen Cappannari also undertook Kawaiisu fieldwork in 1946-1947, and Zigmond was later provided with field notes from this research. Zigmond was assisted at one point by Charles Hockett in assembling linguistic data. He worked with Emma Williams, John and Louisa Marcus, Setimo Girado, Bob Rabbit, and Refugia Williams in the late 1930s. In the early 1970s, Bertha Goings, Lida and Clara Girado, and Andy Greene were principal consultants. Zigmond was able to gather information on named localities important to the Kawaiisu in the greater Tehachapi Valley region. He collected the names of four native village sites in the Tehachapi area. The exact location of several of these places is not known. It has been suggested that these settlement sites were located along Brite Creek, but this is not certain, particularly given Lieut. Williamson<nowiki>’</nowiki>s observation in 1853 that a native settlement was visited several miles to the east of another settlement that appears to have been located on Brite Creek. The named settlement locations recorded by Zigmond are:
+'''''Zigmond 1977, 1980, 1981, 1986, Zigmond et al. 1991:''''' Maurice Zigmond carried out fieldwork among the Kawaiisu in 1936-1940 and 1970-1974. Stephen Cappannari also undertook Kawaiisu fieldwork in 1946-1947, and Zigmond was later provided with field notes from this research. Zigmond was assisted at one point by Charles Hockett in assembling linguistic data. He worked with Emma Williams, John and Louisa Marcus, Setimo Girado, Bob Rabbit, and Refugia Williams in the late 1930s. In the early 1970s, Bertha Goings, Lida and Clara Girado, and Andy Greene were principal consultants. Zigmond was able to gather information on named localities important to the Kawaiisu in the greater Tehachapi Valley region. He collected the names of four native village sites in the Tehachapi area. The exact location of several of these places is not known. It has been suggested that these settlement sites were located along Brite Creek, but this is not certain, particularly given Lieut. Williamson<nowiki>’</nowiki>s observation in 1853 that a native settlement was visited several miles to the east of another settlement that appears to have been located on Brite Creek. The named settlement locations recorded by Zigmond are:
-''Pamhayikї<nowiki>’</nowiki>ї, pamhayka<nowiki>’</nowiki>a.'' This is the name of a place west of Tehachapi (presumably modern Tehachapi) associated with the location of a native village (Zigmond et al. 1991:248, 2003:203). No etymology was provided.
+'''''Pamhayikї<nowiki>’</nowiki>ї, pamhayka<nowiki>’</nowiki>a:''''' This is the name of a place west of Tehachapi (presumably modern Tehachapi) associated with the location of a native village (Zigmond et al. 1991:248, 2003:203). No etymology was provided.
-''Kohno-tsi.'' This place was a village site located to the west of modern Tehachapi, at a spring or other body of water. The name glosses as cradleboard, since a cradleboard was seen under the water at this place (Zigmond et al. 1991:248, 2003:203). This corresponds to a Kitanemuk name for a site in the vicinity of modern Tehachapi, mentioned above.
+'''''Kohno-tsi:''''' This place was a village site located to the west of modern Tehachapi, at a spring or other body of water. The name glosses as cradleboard, since a cradleboard was seen under the water at this place (Zigmond et al. 1991:248, 2003:203). This corresponds to a Kitanemuk name for a site in the vicinity of modern Tehachapi, mentioned above.
-''Tehechita.'' This placename is associated by a number of sources with a native village site located on Brite (or Brite<nowiki>’</nowiki>s) Creek in the Vicinity of Old Town, the pre-1876 site of Tehachapi. Just downstream from Old Town and upstream from the confluence of Brite and Tehachapi Creeks was the site of a cienaga that would have been a focus of native settlement.
+'''''Tehechita:''''' This placename is associated by a number of sources with a native village site located on Brite (or Brite<nowiki>’</nowiki>s) Creek in the Vicinity of Old Town, the pre-1876 site of Tehachapi. Just downstream from Old Town and upstream from the confluence of Brite and Tehachapi Creeks was the site of a cienaga that would have been a focus of native settlement.
-''Tїheshtї-va<nowiki>’</nowiki>a-dї.'' Zigmond collected this name for a village site, the name glossed as "plant place", although he could not identify the specific plant that the place was associated with. Andy Greene identified the site of this place as near Meadowbrook Park, the former site of the Meadowbrook Dairy. He said that this was located at a running stream, apparently Tehachapi Creek. It is stated that this place was formerly a site for fishing (Garfinkel and Williams 2009:42).
+'''''Tїheshtї-va<nowiki>’</nowiki>a-dї:''''' Zigmond collected this name for a village site, the name glossed as "plant place", although he could not identify the specific plant that the place was associated with. Andy Greene identified the site of this place as near Meadowbrook Park, the former site of the Meadowbrook Dairy. He said that this was located at a running stream, apparently Tehachapi Creek. It is stated that this place was formerly a site for fishing (Garfinkel and Williams 2009:42).
 ==Eastern Tehachapi Valley – Native Places==